1. An Asian republic at east end of Mediterranean.
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City in SE Pennsylvania, US, NE of Harrisburg, seat of Lebanon County; Industries include iron and steel products, textiles, clothing, and chemicals.
Country in W Asia, bounded N and E by Syria, S by Israel, and W by the Mediterranean Sea.
government.
Under the 1926 constitution, amended 1927, 1929, 1943, 1947, and 1989, legislative power is held by the national assembly, whose 128 members are elected by universal adult suffrage, through a system of proportional representation, in order to give a fair reflection of all the country's religious groups. The assembly serves a four-year term. The president is elected by the assembly for a six-year term and appoints a prime minister and cabinet who are collectively responsible to the assembly. Under the 1943 amended constitution the president is Christian, the prime minister is Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the national assembly is Shiite Muslim. The 1989 constitution reflects the Muslim majority that has emerged since 1947. The powers of the president have been much diminished, although the post is still reserved for a Maronite Christian.
history.
The area now known as Lebanon was once occupied by Phoenicia, an empire that flourished from the 5th century BC to the 1st century AD, when it came under Roman rule. Christianity was introduced during the Roman occupation, and Islam arrived with the Arabs 635. Lebanon was part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire from the 16th century, until administered by France under a League of Nations mandate 1920–41. It was declared independent 1941, became a republic 1943, and achieved full autonomy 1944.
Lebanon has a wide variety of religions, including Christianity and many Islamic sects. For many years these coexisted peacefully, giving Lebanon a stability that enabled it, until the mid-1970s, to be a commercial and financial center. Beirut's thriving business district was largely destroyed 1975–76, and Lebanon's role as an international trader has been greatly diminished.
PLO presence in Lebanon.
After the establishment of Israel 1948, thousands of Palestinian refugees fled to Lebanon, and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in Beirut 1964, had its headquarters in Lebanon 1971–82 (it moved to Tunis 1982). The PLO presence in Lebanon was the main reason for Israeli invasions and much of the subsequent civil strife.
Fighting was largely between left-wing Muslims, led by Kamul Jumblatt of the Progressive Socialist Party, and conservative Christian groups, mainly members of the Phalangist Party. There was also conflict between pro-Iranian traditional Muslims, such as the Shiites, and and Syrian-backed deviationist Muslims, such as the Druse.
civil war.
In 1975 the fighting developed into full-scale civil war. A cease-fire was agreed 1976, but fighting began again 1978, when Israeli forces invaded Lebanon in search of PLO guerrillas. The United Nations secured Israel’s agreement to a withdrawal and set up an international peacekeeping force, but to little avail. In 1979 Major Saad Haddad, a right-wing Lebanese army officer, with Israeli encouragement, declared an area of about 1,800 sq km/700 sq mi in S Lebanon an “independent free Lebanon”, and the following year Christian Phalangist soldiers took over an area N of Beirut. Throughout this turmoil the Lebanese government was virtually powerless. In 1982 Bachir Gemayel (youngest son of Pierre Gemayel, the founder of the Phalangist Party) became president. He was assassinated before he could assume office and his brother Amin took his place. Israeli forces again invaded 1982, driving to Beirut and forcing the expulsion of PLO guerrillas and leaders to Syrian-held areas and to Tunisia.
efforts to end hostilities.
In 1983, after exhaustive talks between Lebanon and Israel, under US auspices, an agreement declared an end to hostilities and called for the withdrawal of all foreign forces from the country within three months. Syria refused to recognize the agreement and left about 40,000 troops, with about 7,000 PLO fighters, in N Lebanon. Israel responded by refusing to take its forces from the south. Meanwhile, a full-scale war began between Phalangist and Druse soldiers in the Chouf Mountains, ending in a Christian defeat and the creation of a Druse-controlled ministate. The multinational force was drawn gradually but unwillingly into the conflict until it was withdrawn in the spring of 1984. Attempts were made 1985 and 1986 to end the civil war but rifts within Muslim and Christian groups thwarted them. Meanwhile Lebanon, and particularly Beirut, saw its infrastructure and earlier prosperity virtually destroyed as it continued to be a battlefield for the rival factions.
The civil war in Beirut pitted the E Beirut “administration” of General Michel Aoun, backed by Christian army units and Lebanese militia forces (although 30% of them were Muslim), against the W Beirut “administration” (Muslim) of Premier Selim al-Hoss, supported by Syrian army and Muslim militia allies, including Walid Jumblatt’s Progressive Socialist Party (Druse).
In May 1989 the Arab League secured agreement to a cease-fire between Christians and Muslims and in Sept a peace plan was agreed by all except General Aoun, who dissolved the national assembly. The assembly ignored him and in Nov elected the Maronite-Christian René Muawad as president instead of Aoun, but within days he was killed by an automobile bomb. Elias Hrawi was made his successor and he immediately confirmed the acting prime minister, al-Hoss, in that post. Despite being replaced as army commander in chief, Aoun continued to defy the constituted government.
Western hostages.
In 1990 it was estimated that 18 Westerners, including eight Americans, were being held hostage in Lebanon by pro-Iranian Shiite Muslim groups; many had been held incommunicado for years. In Aug the release of the hostages began. In Oct government troops, backed by Syria, stormed the presidential palace occupied by General Aoun, who surrendered and took refuge in the French embassy. By Nov the government of Hrawi and al-Hoss had regained control of Beirut and proposals for a new constitution for a Second Republic were being discussed. In Dec Hrawi appointed Umar Karami as prime minister, heading a new government. General Aoun was pardoned by the government and allowed to leave his haven in the French embassy. By 1992, due to improved relations with Syria and Iran and the efforts of the UN secretary-general, all Western hostages had been released.
Faced with increasing economic problems, Prime Minister Karami resigned May 1992 and was replaced by Rashid al-Solh. By that time the 15 years of civil war had left 144,240 dead, 17,415 missing, and 197,505 injured. The Sept 1992 general election was boycotted by many Christians, resulting in the reelection of the pro-Syrian administration, with Rafik al-Hariri as prime minister. In 1993 Israel launched all-out attacks on southern Lebanon, ostensibly against Hezbollah strongholds, but Lebanese civilians and their property were hit in the process and many thousands of refugees created. In Dec 1994 Prime Minister al-Hariri resigned, after allegations of corruption, but later withdrew his resignation.